Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
_Number_ is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two `
` numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or `
` more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of `
` _s_ or _es_. `
` `
` _Gender_ has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but `
` while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, `
` feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender denotes all those of `
` the male kind, the feminine gender all those of the female kind, the `
` neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life, and `
` common gender is applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time `
` being is indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things `
` which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, `
` belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called `
` Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, `
` as, for instance, we say of the sun, _He_ is rising; of the moon, _She_ `
` is setting. `
` `
` _Case_ is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a `
` preposition. There are three cases, the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_ `
` and the _Objective_. The nominative is the subject of which we are `
` speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the `
` possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the `
` person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb. `
` `
` An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is `
` used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, _a_ or `
` _an_ and _the_. `
` `
` An _Adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows `
` some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun. `
` `
` `
` DEFINITIONS `
` `
` A _Pronoun_ is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from `
` repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, have case, `
` number, gender and person. There are three kinds of pronouns, _personal_, `
` _relative_ and _adjective_. `
` `
` A _verb_ is a word which signifies action or the doing of something. A `
` verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person, though the `
` latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb. `
` `
` An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective and sometimes `
` another adverb. `
` `
` A _preposition_ serves to connect words and to show the relation between `
` the objects which the words express. `
` `
` A _conjunction_ is a word which joins words, phrases, clauses and `
` sentences together. `
` `
` An _interjection_ is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden `
` emotion of the mind. `
` `
` `
` THREE ESSENTIALS `
` `
` The three essentials of the English language are: _Purity_, _Perspicuity_ `
` and _Precision_. `
` `
` By _Purity_ is signified the use of good English. It precludes the use of `
` all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous `
` expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever. Neither does it `
` sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by `
` the best writers and speakers. `
` `
` _Perspicuity_ demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in `
` unequivocal language, so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever `
` of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey. All `
` ambiguous words, words of double meaning and words that might possibly be `
` construed in a sense different from that intended, are strictly `
` forbidden. Perspicuity requires a style at once clear and comprehensive `
` and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining `
` after effect. `
` `
` _Precision_ requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy `
` and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple enough to enable the `
` hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or `
` writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all long and involved sentences, `
` and, on the other, those that are too short and abrupt. Its object is to `
` strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the `
` hearer or reader on the words uttered or written. `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER II `
` `
` ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR `
` `
` Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology. `
` `
` `
` In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is `
` imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, `
` for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how `
` much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not `
` know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and `
` the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like `
` the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the `
` import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without `
` reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and `
` as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as `
` those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the `
` grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while `
` thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy. `
` `
` `
` DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR `
` `
` There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: `
` `
` _Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_. `
` `
` _Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words. `
` `
` _Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they `
` undergo. `
` `
` _Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences. `
` `
` _Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different `
` kinds of verse. `
` `
` The three first mentioned concern us most. `
` `
` `
` LETTERS `
` `
` A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. `
` Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter `
` which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded `
` without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and `
` sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable. `
` `
` `
` SYLLABLES AND WORDS `
` `
` A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of `
` [Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every `
` syllable there must be at least one vowel. `
` `
` A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables. `
` `
` Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the `
` best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs `
` of speech in properly pronouncing them. `
` `
` `
` THE PARTS OF SPEECH `
` `
` ARTICLE `
` `
` An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is `
` used in a particular or general sense. `
` `
` There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the `
` indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or `
` thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any `
` man whatsoever of the species or race. `
` `
` _The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular `
` person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual. `
` `
` `
` NOUN `
` `
` A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_, `
` _book_. Nouns are proper and common. `
` `
` _Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places. `
` `
` _Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species. `
` `
` Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_. `
` `
` _Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it `
` represents one or more than one. `
` `
` _Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the `
` name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has `
` no distinction of sex. `
` `
` _Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the `
` person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or `
` question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of `
` an action or of a relation. `
` `
` Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the `
` distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_ `
` which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_; `
` the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and `
` _book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor `
` female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_, `
` the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_, `
` the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object `
` related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called `
` _Case_. `
` `
`
` numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or `
` more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of `
` _s_ or _es_. `
` `
` _Gender_ has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but `
` while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine, `
` feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender denotes all those of `
` the male kind, the feminine gender all those of the female kind, the `
` neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life, and `
` common gender is applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time `
` being is indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things `
` which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking, `
` belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called `
` Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender, `
` as, for instance, we say of the sun, _He_ is rising; of the moon, _She_ `
` is setting. `
` `
` _Case_ is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a `
` preposition. There are three cases, the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_ `
` and the _Objective_. The nominative is the subject of which we are `
` speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the `
` possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the `
` person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb. `
` `
` An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is `
` used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, _a_ or `
` _an_ and _the_. `
` `
` An _Adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows `
` some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun. `
` `
` `
` DEFINITIONS `
` `
` A _Pronoun_ is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from `
` repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, have case, `
` number, gender and person. There are three kinds of pronouns, _personal_, `
` _relative_ and _adjective_. `
` `
` A _verb_ is a word which signifies action or the doing of something. A `
` verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person, though the `
` latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb. `
` `
` An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective and sometimes `
` another adverb. `
` `
` A _preposition_ serves to connect words and to show the relation between `
` the objects which the words express. `
` `
` A _conjunction_ is a word which joins words, phrases, clauses and `
` sentences together. `
` `
` An _interjection_ is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden `
` emotion of the mind. `
` `
` `
` THREE ESSENTIALS `
` `
` The three essentials of the English language are: _Purity_, _Perspicuity_ `
` and _Precision_. `
` `
` By _Purity_ is signified the use of good English. It precludes the use of `
` all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous `
` expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever. Neither does it `
` sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by `
` the best writers and speakers. `
` `
` _Perspicuity_ demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in `
` unequivocal language, so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever `
` of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey. All `
` ambiguous words, words of double meaning and words that might possibly be `
` construed in a sense different from that intended, are strictly `
` forbidden. Perspicuity requires a style at once clear and comprehensive `
` and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining `
` after effect. `
` `
` _Precision_ requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy `
` and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple enough to enable the `
` hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or `
` writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all long and involved sentences, `
` and, on the other, those that are too short and abrupt. Its object is to `
` strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the `
` hearer or reader on the words uttered or written. `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER II `
` `
` ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR `
` `
` Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology. `
` `
` `
` In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is `
` imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, `
` for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how `
` much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not `
` know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and `
` the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like `
` the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the `
` import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without `
` reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and `
` as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as `
` those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the `
` grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while `
` thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy. `
` `
` `
` DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR `
` `
` There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.: `
` `
` _Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_. `
` `
` _Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words. `
` `
` _Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they `
` undergo. `
` `
` _Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences. `
` `
` _Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different `
` kinds of verse. `
` `
` The three first mentioned concern us most. `
` `
` `
` LETTERS `
` `
` A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. `
` Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter `
` which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded `
` without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and `
` sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable. `
` `
` `
` SYLLABLES AND WORDS `
` `
` A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of `
` [Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every `
` syllable there must be at least one vowel. `
` `
` A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables. `
` `
` Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the `
` best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs `
` of speech in properly pronouncing them. `
` `
` `
` THE PARTS OF SPEECH `
` `
` ARTICLE `
` `
` An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is `
` used in a particular or general sense. `
` `
` There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the `
` indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or `
` thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any `
` man whatsoever of the species or race. `
` `
` _The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular `
` person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual. `
` `
` `
` NOUN `
` `
` A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_, `
` _book_. Nouns are proper and common. `
` `
` _Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places. `
` `
` _Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species. `
` `
` Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_. `
` `
` _Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it `
` represents one or more than one. `
` `
` _Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the `
` name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has `
` no distinction of sex. `
` `
` _Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the `
` person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or `
` question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of `
` an action or of a relation. `
` `
` Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the `
` distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_ `
` which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_; `
` the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and `
` _book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor `
` female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_, `
` the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_, `
` the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object `
` related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called `
` _Case_. `
` `
`