Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and `
` superlative; as, _well_, _better_, _best_. `
` `
` `
` PREPOSITION `
` `
` A _preposition_ connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows `
` the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation `
` between hand and table. `
` `
` Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed _before_ the `
` words whose connection or relation with other words they point out. `
` `
` `
` CONJUNCTION `
` `
` A _conjunction_ joins words, clauses and sentences; as "John _and_ `
` James." "My father and mother have come, _but_ I have not seen them." `
` `
` The conjunctions in most general use are _and, also; either, or; neither, `
` nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since; therefore, `
` wherefore, then; if, unless, lest_. `
` `
` `
` INTERJECTION `
` `
` An _interjection_ is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the `
` mind. Thus in the examples,--"Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?" `
` _ah_, expresses surprise, and _alas_, distress. `
` `
` Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are `
` uttered as exclamations, as, _nonsense! strange! hail! away!_ etc. `
` `
` We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible `
` stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they `
` are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others. `
` To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on `
` another is called _parsing_ and in order that every etymological `
` connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing `
` essentials is here given: `
` `
` The signification of the noun is _limited_ to _one_, but to any _one_ of `
` the kind, by the _indefinite_ article, and to some _particular_ one, or `
` some particular _number_, by the _definite_ article. `
` `
` _Nouns_, in one form, represent _one_ of a kind, and in another, _any `
` number_ more than one; they are the _names of males_, or _females_, or of `
` objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the `
` _subject_ of an affirmation, a command or a question,--the _owner_ or `
` _possessor_ of a thing,--or the _object_ of an action, or of a relation `
` expressed by a preposition. `
` `
` _Adjectives_ express the _qualities_ which distinguish one person or `
` thing from another; in one form they express quality _without `
` comparison_; in another, they express comparison _between two_, or `
` between _one_ and a number taken collectively,--and in a third they `
` express comparison between _one_ and a _number_ of others taken `
` separately. `
` `
` _Pronouns_ are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely `
` as the _substitutes_ of _names_; the pronouns of another class have a `
` peculiar _reference_ to some _preceding words_ in the _sentence_, of `
` which they are the substitutes,--and those of a third class refer `
` adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are `
` used for both the _name_ and the _substitute_; and several are frequently `
` employed in _asking questions_. `
` `
` _Affirmations_ and _commands_ are expressed by the verb; and different `
` inflections of the verb express _number_, _person_, _time_ and _manner_. `
` With regard to _time_, an affirmation may be _present_ or _past_ or `
` _future_; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be _positive_ or `
` _conditional_, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or `
` not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;--the verb may express `
` _command_ or _entreaty_; or the sense of the verb may be expressed `
` _without affirming_ or _commanding_. The verb also expresses that an `
` action or state _is_ or _was_ going on, by a form which is also used `
` sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns. `
` `
` _Affirmations_ are _modified_ by _adverbs_, some of which can be `
` inflected to express different degrees of modification. `
` `
` Words are joined together by _conjunctions_; and the various _relations_ `
` which one thing bears to another are expressed by _'prepositions. Sudden `
` emotions_ of the mind, and _exclamations_ are expressed by _interjections_. `
` `
` Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech, `
` sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a _calm_," _calm_ is `
` a noun; in "It is a _calm_ evening," _calm_ is an adjective; and in `
` "_Calm_ your fears," _calm_ is a verb. `
` `
` The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed `
` etymologically: `
` `
` _"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much `
` difficulty."_ `
` `
` _I_, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine `
` gender, nominative case, subject of the verb _see_. `
` `
` _now_, an adverb of time modifying the verb _see_. `
` `
` _see_, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, `
` first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I. `
` `
` _the_, the definite article particularizing the noun man. `
` `
` _old_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun man. `
` `
` _man_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective `
` case governed by the transitive verb _see_. `
` `
` _coming_, the present or imperfect participle of the verb "to come" `
` referring to the noun man. `
` `
` _but_, a conjunction. `
` `
` _alas_, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow. `
` `
` _he_, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, `
` nominative case, subject of verb has walked. `
` `
` _has walked_, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, `
` 3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject _he_. `
` `
` _with_, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty. `
` `
` _much_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun difficulty. `
` `
` _difficulty_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter gender, `
` objective case governed by the preposition _with_. `
` `
` N.B.--_Much_ is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is thus compared: `
` `
` Positive Comparative Superlative `
` much more most `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER III `
` `
` THE SENTENCE `
` `
` Different Kinds--Arrangement of Words--Paragraph `
` `
` `
` A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate `
` sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete thought or idea. `
` No matter how short, it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent `
` to direct the action of the verb. `
` `
` "Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"--are sentences. `
` `
` A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and something `
` said about it. The word or words indicating what is spoken about form what `
` is called the _subject_ and the word or words indicating what is said about `
` it form what is called the _predicate_. `
` `
` In the sentences given, _birds_, _fish_ and _men_ are the subjects, while `
` _fly_, _swim_ and _walk_ are the predicates. `
` `
` There are three kinds of sentences, _simple_, _compound_ and _complex_. `
` `
` The _simple sentence_ expresses a single thought and consists of one `
` subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal." `
` `
` A _compound sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences of equal `
` importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood, as, `
` "The men work in the fields and the women work in the household," or "The `
` men work in the fields and the women in the household" or "The men and `
` women work in the fields and in the household." `
` `
` A _complex sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences so combined `
` that one depends on the other to complete its meaning; as; "When he `
` returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words, "when he returns" `
` are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning. `
` `
` A _clause_ is a separate part of a complex sentence, as "when he returns" `
` in the last example. `
` `
` A _phrase_ consists of two or more words without a finite verb. `
` `
` Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea, `
` therefore we can have no sentence. `
` `
` Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb `
` cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence, for it `
` is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an expression as "A `
` dog running along the street," we wait for something more to be added, `
` something more affirmed about the dog, whether he bit or barked or fell `
` dead or was run over. `
` `
` Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject. `
` `
` When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot happen `
` without affecting something, the thing affected is called the _object_. `
` `
` Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In `
` "The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching. `
` `
` `
`
` superlative; as, _well_, _better_, _best_. `
` `
` `
` PREPOSITION `
` `
` A _preposition_ connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows `
` the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation `
` between hand and table. `
` `
` Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed _before_ the `
` words whose connection or relation with other words they point out. `
` `
` `
` CONJUNCTION `
` `
` A _conjunction_ joins words, clauses and sentences; as "John _and_ `
` James." "My father and mother have come, _but_ I have not seen them." `
` `
` The conjunctions in most general use are _and, also; either, or; neither, `
` nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since; therefore, `
` wherefore, then; if, unless, lest_. `
` `
` `
` INTERJECTION `
` `
` An _interjection_ is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the `
` mind. Thus in the examples,--"Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?" `
` _ah_, expresses surprise, and _alas_, distress. `
` `
` Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are `
` uttered as exclamations, as, _nonsense! strange! hail! away!_ etc. `
` `
` We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible `
` stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they `
` are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others. `
` To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on `
` another is called _parsing_ and in order that every etymological `
` connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing `
` essentials is here given: `
` `
` The signification of the noun is _limited_ to _one_, but to any _one_ of `
` the kind, by the _indefinite_ article, and to some _particular_ one, or `
` some particular _number_, by the _definite_ article. `
` `
` _Nouns_, in one form, represent _one_ of a kind, and in another, _any `
` number_ more than one; they are the _names of males_, or _females_, or of `
` objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the `
` _subject_ of an affirmation, a command or a question,--the _owner_ or `
` _possessor_ of a thing,--or the _object_ of an action, or of a relation `
` expressed by a preposition. `
` `
` _Adjectives_ express the _qualities_ which distinguish one person or `
` thing from another; in one form they express quality _without `
` comparison_; in another, they express comparison _between two_, or `
` between _one_ and a number taken collectively,--and in a third they `
` express comparison between _one_ and a _number_ of others taken `
` separately. `
` `
` _Pronouns_ are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely `
` as the _substitutes_ of _names_; the pronouns of another class have a `
` peculiar _reference_ to some _preceding words_ in the _sentence_, of `
` which they are the substitutes,--and those of a third class refer `
` adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are `
` used for both the _name_ and the _substitute_; and several are frequently `
` employed in _asking questions_. `
` `
` _Affirmations_ and _commands_ are expressed by the verb; and different `
` inflections of the verb express _number_, _person_, _time_ and _manner_. `
` With regard to _time_, an affirmation may be _present_ or _past_ or `
` _future_; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be _positive_ or `
` _conditional_, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or `
` not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;--the verb may express `
` _command_ or _entreaty_; or the sense of the verb may be expressed `
` _without affirming_ or _commanding_. The verb also expresses that an `
` action or state _is_ or _was_ going on, by a form which is also used `
` sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns. `
` `
` _Affirmations_ are _modified_ by _adverbs_, some of which can be `
` inflected to express different degrees of modification. `
` `
` Words are joined together by _conjunctions_; and the various _relations_ `
` which one thing bears to another are expressed by _'prepositions. Sudden `
` emotions_ of the mind, and _exclamations_ are expressed by _interjections_. `
` `
` Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech, `
` sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a _calm_," _calm_ is `
` a noun; in "It is a _calm_ evening," _calm_ is an adjective; and in `
` "_Calm_ your fears," _calm_ is a verb. `
` `
` The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed `
` etymologically: `
` `
` _"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much `
` difficulty."_ `
` `
` _I_, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine `
` gender, nominative case, subject of the verb _see_. `
` `
` _now_, an adverb of time modifying the verb _see_. `
` `
` _see_, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, `
` first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I. `
` `
` _the_, the definite article particularizing the noun man. `
` `
` _old_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun man. `
` `
` _man_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective `
` case governed by the transitive verb _see_. `
` `
` _coming_, the present or imperfect participle of the verb "to come" `
` referring to the noun man. `
` `
` _but_, a conjunction. `
` `
` _alas_, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow. `
` `
` _he_, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, `
` nominative case, subject of verb has walked. `
` `
` _has walked_, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, `
` 3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject _he_. `
` `
` _with_, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty. `
` `
` _much_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun difficulty. `
` `
` _difficulty_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter gender, `
` objective case governed by the preposition _with_. `
` `
` N.B.--_Much_ is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is thus compared: `
` `
` Positive Comparative Superlative `
` much more most `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER III `
` `
` THE SENTENCE `
` `
` Different Kinds--Arrangement of Words--Paragraph `
` `
` `
` A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate `
` sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete thought or idea. `
` No matter how short, it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent `
` to direct the action of the verb. `
` `
` "Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"--are sentences. `
` `
` A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and something `
` said about it. The word or words indicating what is spoken about form what `
` is called the _subject_ and the word or words indicating what is said about `
` it form what is called the _predicate_. `
` `
` In the sentences given, _birds_, _fish_ and _men_ are the subjects, while `
` _fly_, _swim_ and _walk_ are the predicates. `
` `
` There are three kinds of sentences, _simple_, _compound_ and _complex_. `
` `
` The _simple sentence_ expresses a single thought and consists of one `
` subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal." `
` `
` A _compound sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences of equal `
` importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood, as, `
` "The men work in the fields and the women work in the household," or "The `
` men work in the fields and the women in the household" or "The men and `
` women work in the fields and in the household." `
` `
` A _complex sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences so combined `
` that one depends on the other to complete its meaning; as; "When he `
` returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words, "when he returns" `
` are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning. `
` `
` A _clause_ is a separate part of a complex sentence, as "when he returns" `
` in the last example. `
` `
` A _phrase_ consists of two or more words without a finite verb. `
` `
` Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea, `
` therefore we can have no sentence. `
` `
` Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb `
` cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence, for it `
` is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an expression as "A `
` dog running along the street," we wait for something more to be added, `
` something more affirmed about the dog, whether he bit or barked or fell `
` dead or was run over. `
` `
` Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject. `
` `
` When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot happen `
` without affecting something, the thing affected is called the _object_. `
` `
` Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In `
` "The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching. `
` `
` `
`