Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
`
` ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE `
` `
` Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is `
` subject--verb--object. In many cases no other form is possible. Thus in `
` the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we cannot reverse it and say `
` "The mouse has caught a cat" without destroying the meaning, and in any `
` other form of arrangement, such as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel `
` that while it is intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact `
` and one which jars upon us more or less. `
` `
` In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than what are `
` barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater freedom of `
` arrangement and can so place the words as to give the best effect. The `
` proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision. These two `
` combined give _style_ to the structure. `
` `
` Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal _Elegy_--"The `
` ploughman homeward plods his weary way." This line can be paraphrased to `
` read 18 different ways. Here are a few variations: `
` `
` Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. `
` The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. `
` Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. `
` His weary way the ploughman homeward plods. `
` Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman. `
` Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward. `
` His weary way the ploughman plods homeward. `
` His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. `
` The ploughman plods homeward his weary way. `
` The ploughman his weary way plods homeward. `
` `
` and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior to the `
` one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to comply with `
` the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the variations depend upon the `
` emphasis we wish to place upon the different words. `
` `
` In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight `
` of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for `
` catching the attention of the reader. Words in these places have greater `
` emphasis than elsewhere. `
` `
` In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is `
` plodding his way homeward, but according to the arrangement a very slight `
` difference is effected in the idea. Some of the variations make us think `
` more of the ploughman, others more of the plodding, and still others more `
` of the weariness. `
` `
` As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important places, it `
` naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from `
` these positions. Of the two places the end one is the more important, `
` therefore, it really calls for the most important word in the sentence. `
` Never commence a sentence with _And_, _But_, _Since_, _Because_, and `
` other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak `
` adverbs or pronouns. `
` `
` The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another `
` in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By ignoring this `
` principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical, really ridiculous `
` and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is offered for `
` information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner." `
` "This monument was erected to the memory of John Jones, who was shot by `
` his affectionate brother." `
` `
` In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be `
` inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement of `
` certain words, must be obeyed. `
` `
` (1) The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," `
` "Thou hast," (the pronoun _thou_ is here used to illustrate the verb `
` form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation of the `
` verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a singular `
` verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as," The boy `
` writes," "The boys write." `
` `
` The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing `
` (1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English nouns; (3) `
` compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent subjects. `
` `
` (1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things `
` regarded as a whole; as, _class regiment_. When the individuals `
` or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb; `
` as The class _were_ distinguished for ability. When the idea of `
` the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular `
` verb; as The regiment _was_ in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard `
` for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the `
` singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in `
` the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be `
` guided accordingly. "He was an _alumnus_ of Harvard." "They `
` were _alumni_ of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb `
` has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected `
` by _and_, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain _are_ `
` disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are `
` connected by _or_ the verb should be singular; as, "The man or `
` the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than `
` one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the `
` most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, _is_ wrong." `
` "Whether he or I _am_ to be blamed." `
` `
` (2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor _vice versa_. `
` This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for `
` "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went" `
` for "He would have gone," etc. `
` `
` (3) The use of the verbs _shall_ and _will_ is a rock upon which even `
` the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly. `
` Their significance changes according as they are used with the first, `
` second or third person. With the first person _shall_ is used in direct `
` statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the `
` city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _shall_ is used to `
` express a determination; as, "You _shall_ go to the city to-morrow," `
` "He _shall_ go to the city to-morrow." `
` `
` With the first person _will_ is used in direct statement to express `
` determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and `
` third persons _will_ is used to express simple future action; as, "You `
` _will_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _will_ go to the city to-morrow." `
` `
` A very old rule regarding the uses of _shall_ and _will_ is thus `
` expressed in rhyme: `
` `
` In the first person simply _shall_ foretells, `
` In _will_ a threat or else a promise dwells. `
` _Shall_ in the second and third does threat, `
` _Will_ simply then foretells the future feat. `
` `
` (4) Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective `
` case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive `
` case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows `
` transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see `
` you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." _Whom_ is here the object of `
` the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She `
` bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the `
` preposition _to_ understood. "Between you and I" is a very common `
` expression. It should be "Between you and me" since _between_ is a `
` preposition calling for the objective case. `
` `
` (5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and `
` _that_. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy `
` who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative _that_ may `
` refer to both persons and things; as, "The man _that_ I saw." "The hat `
` _that_ I bought." `
` `
` (6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative; `
` as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two." `
` Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double `
` comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much _more_ preferable." `
` "The most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects `
` which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer _life_ than a `
` _teacher_." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong; `
` as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a `
` class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient `
` warrior." `
` `
` (7) Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective. `
` Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me," `
` and instead of saying "She looked _beautifully_" say "She looked `
` _beautiful_." `
` `
` (8) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead `
` of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the `
` door." `
` `
` (9) Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and `
` objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use. `
` `
` The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well `
` illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic `
` actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by `
` Hamblin, the manager: `
` `
` `
` "So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put `
` the saddle on him." `
` `
` "On Tom Flynn?" `
` `
` "No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I mounted `
` him." `
` `
` "What! mounted Tom Flynn?" `
` `
` "No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off." `
` `
` "Shook hands with the horse, Billy?" `
` `
` "No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should `
` I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by `
` the head." `
` `
` "What! hold Hamblin by the head?" `
` `
` "No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together." `
` `
` "What! you and the horse?" `
` `
` "No, _me_ and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went out `
` of town." `
` `
` "What! mounted Hamblin again?" `
` `
`
` ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE `
` `
` Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is `
` subject--verb--object. In many cases no other form is possible. Thus in `
` the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we cannot reverse it and say `
` "The mouse has caught a cat" without destroying the meaning, and in any `
` other form of arrangement, such as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel `
` that while it is intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact `
` and one which jars upon us more or less. `
` `
` In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than what are `
` barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater freedom of `
` arrangement and can so place the words as to give the best effect. The `
` proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision. These two `
` combined give _style_ to the structure. `
` `
` Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal _Elegy_--"The `
` ploughman homeward plods his weary way." This line can be paraphrased to `
` read 18 different ways. Here are a few variations: `
` `
` Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way. `
` The ploughman plods his weary way homeward. `
` Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way. `
` His weary way the ploughman homeward plods. `
` Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman. `
` Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward. `
` His weary way the ploughman plods homeward. `
` His weary way homeward the ploughman plods. `
` The ploughman plods homeward his weary way. `
` The ploughman his weary way plods homeward. `
` `
` and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior to the `
` one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to comply with `
` the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the variations depend upon the `
` emphasis we wish to place upon the different words. `
` `
` In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight `
` of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for `
` catching the attention of the reader. Words in these places have greater `
` emphasis than elsewhere. `
` `
` In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is `
` plodding his way homeward, but according to the arrangement a very slight `
` difference is effected in the idea. Some of the variations make us think `
` more of the ploughman, others more of the plodding, and still others more `
` of the weariness. `
` `
` As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important places, it `
` naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from `
` these positions. Of the two places the end one is the more important, `
` therefore, it really calls for the most important word in the sentence. `
` Never commence a sentence with _And_, _But_, _Since_, _Because_, and `
` other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak `
` adverbs or pronouns. `
` `
` The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another `
` in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By ignoring this `
` principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical, really ridiculous `
` and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is offered for `
` information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner." `
` "This monument was erected to the memory of John Jones, who was shot by `
` his affectionate brother." `
` `
` In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be `
` inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement of `
` certain words, must be obeyed. `
` `
` (1) The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," `
` "Thou hast," (the pronoun _thou_ is here used to illustrate the verb `
` form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation of the `
` verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a singular `
` verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as," The boy `
` writes," "The boys write." `
` `
` The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing `
` (1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English nouns; (3) `
` compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent subjects. `
` `
` (1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things `
` regarded as a whole; as, _class regiment_. When the individuals `
` or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb; `
` as The class _were_ distinguished for ability. When the idea of `
` the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular `
` verb; as The regiment _was_ in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard `
` for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the `
` singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in `
` the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be `
` guided accordingly. "He was an _alumnus_ of Harvard." "They `
` were _alumni_ of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb `
` has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected `
` by _and_, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain _are_ `
` disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are `
` connected by _or_ the verb should be singular; as, "The man or `
` the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than `
` one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the `
` most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, _is_ wrong." `
` "Whether he or I _am_ to be blamed." `
` `
` (2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor _vice versa_. `
` This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for `
` "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went" `
` for "He would have gone," etc. `
` `
` (3) The use of the verbs _shall_ and _will_ is a rock upon which even `
` the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly. `
` Their significance changes according as they are used with the first, `
` second or third person. With the first person _shall_ is used in direct `
` statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the `
` city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _shall_ is used to `
` express a determination; as, "You _shall_ go to the city to-morrow," `
` "He _shall_ go to the city to-morrow." `
` `
` With the first person _will_ is used in direct statement to express `
` determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and `
` third persons _will_ is used to express simple future action; as, "You `
` _will_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _will_ go to the city to-morrow." `
` `
` A very old rule regarding the uses of _shall_ and _will_ is thus `
` expressed in rhyme: `
` `
` In the first person simply _shall_ foretells, `
` In _will_ a threat or else a promise dwells. `
` _Shall_ in the second and third does threat, `
` _Will_ simply then foretells the future feat. `
` `
` (4) Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective `
` case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive `
` case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows `
` transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see `
` you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." _Whom_ is here the object of `
` the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She `
` bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the `
` preposition _to_ understood. "Between you and I" is a very common `
` expression. It should be "Between you and me" since _between_ is a `
` preposition calling for the objective case. `
` `
` (5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and `
` _that_. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy `
` who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative _that_ may `
` refer to both persons and things; as, "The man _that_ I saw." "The hat `
` _that_ I bought." `
` `
` (6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative; `
` as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two." `
` Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double `
` comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much _more_ preferable." `
` "The most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects `
` which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer _life_ than a `
` _teacher_." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong; `
` as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a `
` class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient `
` warrior." `
` `
` (7) Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective. `
` Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me," `
` and instead of saying "She looked _beautifully_" say "She looked `
` _beautiful_." `
` `
` (8) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead `
` of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the `
` door." `
` `
` (9) Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and `
` objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use. `
` `
` The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well `
` illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic `
` actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by `
` Hamblin, the manager: `
` `
` `
` "So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put `
` the saddle on him." `
` `
` "On Tom Flynn?" `
` `
` "No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I mounted `
` him." `
` `
` "What! mounted Tom Flynn?" `
` `
` "No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off." `
` `
` "Shook hands with the horse, Billy?" `
` `
` "No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should `
` I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by `
` the head." `
` `
` "What! hold Hamblin by the head?" `
` `
` "No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together." `
` `
` "What! you and the horse?" `
` `
` "No, _me_ and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went out `
` of town." `
` `
` "What! mounted Hamblin again?" `
` `
`