Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
`
` "No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but Tom `
` Flynn,--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told `
` the hostler to tie him up." `
` `
` "Tie Tom Flynn up?" `
` `
` "No, the horse; and we had a drink there." `
` `
` "What! you and the horse?" `
` `
` "No, me and Tom Flynn." `
` `
` Finding his auditors by this time in a _horse_ laugh, Billy wound up `
` with: "Now, look here,--every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and `
` every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you `
` any more about it." `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION `
` `
` There are two great classes of sentences according to the general `
` principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the _loose_ and `
` the _periodic_. `
` `
` In the _loose_ sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow `
` several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly `
` noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration `
` to which he adds several attendant connections. For instance in the `
` opening of the story of _Robinson Crusoe_ we read: "I was born in the `
` year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that `
` country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at `
` Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade `
` lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose `
` relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from `
` I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in `
` England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name `
` Crusoe, and so my companions always called me," `
` `
` In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a `
` series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often `
` introduced by such words as _that_, _if_, _since_, _because_. The `
` following is an example: `
` `
` "That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have `
` been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on `
` the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the `
` recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation." `
` `
` On account of its name many are liable to think the _loose_ sentence an `
` undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for `
` granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form. `
` `
` As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the _loose_ form is `
` to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse `
` the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final `
` issue is reached. `
` `
` Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the _loose_, `
` which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate. `
` `
` As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the `
` composition. `
` `
` However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are `
` preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present `
` day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of `
` the reader. They adopt as their motto _multum in parvo_ (much in little) `
` and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of `
` brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too `
` brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place `
` and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very `
` necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which `
` require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the inexperienced `
` writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and `
` Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the `
` sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and `
` few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in `
` composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of all `
` authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay says: "If `
` you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious, `
` simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of `
` Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's `
` writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--"Never use a big word `
` when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning." `
` `
` Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear `
` brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see `
` and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose `
` simplicity of style charms. `
` `
` The beginner should study these writers, make their works his _vade mecum_, `
` they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon `
` them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as `
` it is possible to be in the English language. `
` `
` Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for `
` the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors `
` and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way. `
` `
` `
` THE PARAGRAPH `
` `
` The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely `
` related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they `
` preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is `
` divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a `
` plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader; `
` it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it `
` is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the `
` consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader. `
` `
` Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which `
` enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until `
` he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting `
` to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water `
` and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the `
` same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily `
` pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his `
` interest in the subject until he gets to the end. `
` `
` Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the `
` matter under consideration,--a sentence dependency. For instance, in the `
` same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse `
` unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write `
` consecutively: `
` `
` "The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the `
` large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly dashed `
` down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two `
` sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and `
` distinct places. But when we say--"The fire raged with fierce intensity `
` consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the `
` horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering `
` pedestrians in all directions,"--there is a natural sequence, viz., the `
` horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two `
` expressions are combined in one paragraph. `
` `
` As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a `
` paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first sentence `
` and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force, `
` compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first `
` sentence short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either `
` case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a `
` point _clearly_; the last sentence should _enforce_ it. `
` `
` It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a `
` restatement or counterpart or application of the opening. `
` `
` In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the `
` principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus `
` and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph. Anyone `
` can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions `
` in reference to the sentence. Thus--"The foreman gave the order"-- `
` suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he `
` give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These `
` questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an `
` elaboration of it into a complete paragraph. `
` `
` If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of `
` items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general `
` thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the transition from each item `
` to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of `
` themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more `
` items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed `
` readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the `
` items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are `
` justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty. `
` `
` No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The `
` best advice is,--Study closely the paragraph structure of the best `
` writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of `
` the best models, that one can master the art. `
` `
` The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay, `
` the best model to follow for the oratorical style is Edmund Burke and for `
` description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is `
` the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving. `
` `
` A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of `
` the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin. `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER IV `
` `
` FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE `
` `
` Figures of Speech--Definitions and Examples--Use of Figures `
` `
` `
` In _Figurative Language_ we employ words in such a way that they differ `
` somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and `
` convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use `
` them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they `
` beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt `
` does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it `
` irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of `
`
` "No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but Tom `
` Flynn,--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told `
` the hostler to tie him up." `
` `
` "Tie Tom Flynn up?" `
` `
` "No, the horse; and we had a drink there." `
` `
` "What! you and the horse?" `
` `
` "No, me and Tom Flynn." `
` `
` Finding his auditors by this time in a _horse_ laugh, Billy wound up `
` with: "Now, look here,--every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and `
` every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you `
` any more about it." `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION `
` `
` There are two great classes of sentences according to the general `
` principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the _loose_ and `
` the _periodic_. `
` `
` In the _loose_ sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow `
` several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly `
` noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration `
` to which he adds several attendant connections. For instance in the `
` opening of the story of _Robinson Crusoe_ we read: "I was born in the `
` year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that `
` country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at `
` Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade `
` lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose `
` relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from `
` I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in `
` England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name `
` Crusoe, and so my companions always called me," `
` `
` In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a `
` series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often `
` introduced by such words as _that_, _if_, _since_, _because_. The `
` following is an example: `
` `
` "That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have `
` been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on `
` the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the `
` recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation." `
` `
` On account of its name many are liable to think the _loose_ sentence an `
` undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for `
` granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form. `
` `
` As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the _loose_ form is `
` to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse `
` the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final `
` issue is reached. `
` `
` Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the _loose_, `
` which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate. `
` `
` As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the `
` composition. `
` `
` However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are `
` preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present `
` day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of `
` the reader. They adopt as their motto _multum in parvo_ (much in little) `
` and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of `
` brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too `
` brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place `
` and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very `
` necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which `
` require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the inexperienced `
` writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and `
` Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the `
` sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and `
` few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in `
` composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of all `
` authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay says: "If `
` you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious, `
` simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of `
` Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's `
` writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--"Never use a big word `
` when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning." `
` `
` Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear `
` brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see `
` and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose `
` simplicity of style charms. `
` `
` The beginner should study these writers, make their works his _vade mecum_, `
` they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon `
` them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as `
` it is possible to be in the English language. `
` `
` Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for `
` the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors `
` and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way. `
` `
` `
` THE PARAGRAPH `
` `
` The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely `
` related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they `
` preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is `
` divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a `
` plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader; `
` it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it `
` is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the `
` consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader. `
` `
` Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which `
` enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until `
` he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting `
` to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water `
` and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the `
` same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily `
` pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his `
` interest in the subject until he gets to the end. `
` `
` Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the `
` matter under consideration,--a sentence dependency. For instance, in the `
` same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse `
` unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write `
` consecutively: `
` `
` "The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the `
` large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly dashed `
` down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two `
` sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and `
` distinct places. But when we say--"The fire raged with fierce intensity `
` consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the `
` horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering `
` pedestrians in all directions,"--there is a natural sequence, viz., the `
` horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two `
` expressions are combined in one paragraph. `
` `
` As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a `
` paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first sentence `
` and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force, `
` compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first `
` sentence short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either `
` case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a `
` point _clearly_; the last sentence should _enforce_ it. `
` `
` It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a `
` restatement or counterpart or application of the opening. `
` `
` In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the `
` principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus `
` and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph. Anyone `
` can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions `
` in reference to the sentence. Thus--"The foreman gave the order"-- `
` suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he `
` give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These `
` questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an `
` elaboration of it into a complete paragraph. `
` `
` If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of `
` items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general `
` thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the transition from each item `
` to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of `
` themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more `
` items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed `
` readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the `
` items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are `
` justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty. `
` `
` No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The `
` best advice is,--Study closely the paragraph structure of the best `
` writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of `
` the best models, that one can master the art. `
` `
` The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay, `
` the best model to follow for the oratorical style is Edmund Burke and for `
` description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is `
` the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving. `
` `
` A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of `
` the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin. `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER IV `
` `
` FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE `
` `
` Figures of Speech--Definitions and Examples--Use of Figures `
` `
` `
` In _Figurative Language_ we employ words in such a way that they differ `
` somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and `
` convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use `
` them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they `
` beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt `
` does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it `
` irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of `
`