Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of `
` figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a `
` word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures `
` of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of `
` Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the `
` mode of thought. `
` `
` We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most `
` important, really giving to language the construction and style which `
` make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas. `
` `
` Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities `
` extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of `
` expression which conveys thought may be classified as a Figure. `
` `
` The principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest `
` used are, _Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche, `
` Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax, `
` Epigram, Interrogation_ and _Irony_. `
` `
` The first four are founded on _resemblance_, the second six on _contiguity_ `
` and the third five, on _contrast_. `
` `
` A _Simile_ (from the Latin _similis_, like), is the likening of one thing `
` to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations; `
` as "In his awful anger he was _like_ the storm-driven waves dashing `
` against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and `
` impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to `
` receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the `
` leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast `
` it with the simple statement--"His memory is good." Sometimes _Simile_ is `
` prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger `
` signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He `
` was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is `
` never permissible. Mere _likeness_, it should be remembered, does not `
` constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is `
` compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the `
` objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old _trite_ `
` similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long `
` ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say--"Her head was `
` glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor `
` behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do `
` without such a simile and simply say--"She had fiery red hair." `
` `
` A _Metaphor_ (from the Greek _metapherein_, to carry over or transfer), `
` is a word used to _imply_ a resemblance but instead of likening one `
` object to another as in the _simile_ we directly substitute the action or `
` operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say,--"He is as a `
` great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a _simile_, but if `
` we say--"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The `
` metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more `
` like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called `
` "word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form, `
` color and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use `
` them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the _bed_ of a `
` river, the _shoulder_ of a hill, the _foot_ of a mountain, the _hands_ of `
` a clock, the _key_ of a situation, we are using metaphors. `
` `
` Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the `
` same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much `
` opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we `
` are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as `
` a _ship_, then becomes a _bird_ and finally winds up as a _horse_. `
` `
` _Personification_ (from the Latin _persona_, person, and _facere_, to make) `
` is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is `
` probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures. `
` `
` "The mountains _sing_ together, the hills _rejoice_ and _clap_ their `
` hands." `
` `
` "Earth _felt_ the wound; and Nature from her seat, `
` _Sighing_, through all her works, gave signs of woe." `
` `
` Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted `
` especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms: `
` (1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing `
` examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the `
` inanimate; as, a _raging_ storm; an _angry_ sea; a _whistling_ wind, etc. `
` `
` An _Allegory_ (from the Greek _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak), `
` is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something. `
` It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor. `
` `
` _Allegory_, _metaphor_ and _simile_ have three points in common,--they `
` are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of `
` England;" this is simile. "Ireland _is_ a thorn in the side of England;" `
` this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived `
` on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little `
` girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be `
` useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to `
` his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, then he resorted to `
` very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate `
` and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and `
` became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards `
` her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England `
` and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no `
` mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory `
` in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant `
` man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress," `
` Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever `
` penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser. `
` `
` _Synecdoche_ (from the Greek, _sun_ with, and _ekdexesthai_, to receive), `
` is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally `
` denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses `
` something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the `
` world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose `
` the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a `
` part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is `
` used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his _hands_ `
` was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty _sail_ came into the `
` harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble `
` statue. `
` `
` _Metonymy_ (from the Greek _meta_, change, and _onyma_, a name) is the `
` designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it `
` is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the `
` two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other. `
` Thus when we say of a drunkard--"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that `
` he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to `
` contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) when `
` an effect is put for cause or _vice versa_: as "_Gray hairs_ should be `
` respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting. `
` (2) when the _sign_ is put for the _thing signified_; as, "The pen is `
` mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military `
` force. (3) When the _container_ is put for the thing contained; as "The `
` _House_ was called to order," meaning the members in the House. `
` `
` _Exclamation_ (from the Latin _ex_, out, and _clamare_, to cry), is a `
` figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an `
` expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some `
` harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,--"It is a sad `
` story" he exclaims "What a sad story!" `
` `
` Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it `
` is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion. `
` Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a `
` piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring `
` in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and `
` animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and `
` writing. `
` `
` _Hyperbole_ (from the Greek _hyper_, beyond, and _ballein_, to throw), is `
` an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing `
` things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really `
` are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it. `
` Here are some examples:--"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." `
` "He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have `
` blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are `
` all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there, `
` but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a `
` limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well `
` qualified and kept within reasonable bounds. `
` `
` An _Apostrophe_ (from the Greek _apo_, from, and _strephein_, to turn), `
` is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living, `
` or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father `
` of our Country! Could you visit us now!" `
` `
` "My Country tis of thee-- `
` Sweet land of liberty, `
` Of thee I sing." `
` `
` "O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This `
` figure is very closely allied to Personification. `
` `
` _Vision_ (from the Latin _videre_, to see) consists in treating the past, `
` the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate `
` to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence. `
` "The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy `
` of our sires." `
` `
` This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a `
` vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle. `
` `
` An _Antithesis_ (from the Greek _anti_, against, and _tithenai_, to set) `
` is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such `
` a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast. `
` `
` "Ring out the old, ring in the new, `
` Ring out the false, ring in the true." `
` `
` "Let us be _friends_ in peace, but _enemies_ in war." `
` `
` Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--"It can `
` engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out, `
` without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer; and lift up a ship of `
` war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors; `
` cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of `
` winds and waves." `
` `
` _Climax_ (from the Greek, _klimax_, a ladder), is an arrangement of `
` thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more `
` impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the `
` preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honor, he risked fame, he `
` risked all that men hold dear,--yea, he risked life itself, and for `
` what?--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he `
` was his better self." `
` `
` _Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write), `
`
` figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a `
` word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures `
` of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of `
` Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the `
` mode of thought. `
` `
` We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most `
` important, really giving to language the construction and style which `
` make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas. `
` `
` Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities `
` extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of `
` expression which conveys thought may be classified as a Figure. `
` `
` The principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest `
` used are, _Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche, `
` Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax, `
` Epigram, Interrogation_ and _Irony_. `
` `
` The first four are founded on _resemblance_, the second six on _contiguity_ `
` and the third five, on _contrast_. `
` `
` A _Simile_ (from the Latin _similis_, like), is the likening of one thing `
` to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations; `
` as "In his awful anger he was _like_ the storm-driven waves dashing `
` against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and `
` impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to `
` receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the `
` leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast `
` it with the simple statement--"His memory is good." Sometimes _Simile_ is `
` prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger `
` signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He `
` was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is `
` never permissible. Mere _likeness_, it should be remembered, does not `
` constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is `
` compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the `
` objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old _trite_ `
` similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long `
` ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say--"Her head was `
` glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor `
` behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do `
` without such a simile and simply say--"She had fiery red hair." `
` `
` A _Metaphor_ (from the Greek _metapherein_, to carry over or transfer), `
` is a word used to _imply_ a resemblance but instead of likening one `
` object to another as in the _simile_ we directly substitute the action or `
` operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say,--"He is as a `
` great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a _simile_, but if `
` we say--"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The `
` metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more `
` like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called `
` "word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form, `
` color and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use `
` them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the _bed_ of a `
` river, the _shoulder_ of a hill, the _foot_ of a mountain, the _hands_ of `
` a clock, the _key_ of a situation, we are using metaphors. `
` `
` Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the `
` same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much `
` opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we `
` are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as `
` a _ship_, then becomes a _bird_ and finally winds up as a _horse_. `
` `
` _Personification_ (from the Latin _persona_, person, and _facere_, to make) `
` is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is `
` probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures. `
` `
` "The mountains _sing_ together, the hills _rejoice_ and _clap_ their `
` hands." `
` `
` "Earth _felt_ the wound; and Nature from her seat, `
` _Sighing_, through all her works, gave signs of woe." `
` `
` Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted `
` especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms: `
` (1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing `
` examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the `
` inanimate; as, a _raging_ storm; an _angry_ sea; a _whistling_ wind, etc. `
` `
` An _Allegory_ (from the Greek _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak), `
` is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something. `
` It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor. `
` `
` _Allegory_, _metaphor_ and _simile_ have three points in common,--they `
` are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of `
` England;" this is simile. "Ireland _is_ a thorn in the side of England;" `
` this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived `
` on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little `
` girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be `
` useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to `
` his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, then he resorted to `
` very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate `
` and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and `
` became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards `
` her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England `
` and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no `
` mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory `
` in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant `
` man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's Progress," `
` Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever `
` penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser. `
` `
` _Synecdoche_ (from the Greek, _sun_ with, and _ekdexesthai_, to receive), `
` is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally `
` denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses `
` something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the `
` world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose `
` the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a `
` part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is `
` used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his _hands_ `
` was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty _sail_ came into the `
` harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble `
` statue. `
` `
` _Metonymy_ (from the Greek _meta_, change, and _onyma_, a name) is the `
` designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it `
` is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the `
` two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other. `
` Thus when we say of a drunkard--"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that `
` he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to `
` contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) when `
` an effect is put for cause or _vice versa_: as "_Gray hairs_ should be `
` respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting. `
` (2) when the _sign_ is put for the _thing signified_; as, "The pen is `
` mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military `
` force. (3) When the _container_ is put for the thing contained; as "The `
` _House_ was called to order," meaning the members in the House. `
` `
` _Exclamation_ (from the Latin _ex_, out, and _clamare_, to cry), is a `
` figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an `
` expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some `
` harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,--"It is a sad `
` story" he exclaims "What a sad story!" `
` `
` Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it `
` is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion. `
` Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a `
` piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring `
` in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and `
` animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and `
` writing. `
` `
` _Hyperbole_ (from the Greek _hyper_, beyond, and _ballein_, to throw), is `
` an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing `
` things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really `
` are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it. `
` Here are some examples:--"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." `
` "He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have `
` blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are `
` all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there, `
` but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a `
` limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well `
` qualified and kept within reasonable bounds. `
` `
` An _Apostrophe_ (from the Greek _apo_, from, and _strephein_, to turn), `
` is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living, `
` or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father `
` of our Country! Could you visit us now!" `
` `
` "My Country tis of thee-- `
` Sweet land of liberty, `
` Of thee I sing." `
` `
` "O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This `
` figure is very closely allied to Personification. `
` `
` _Vision_ (from the Latin _videre_, to see) consists in treating the past, `
` the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate `
` to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence. `
` "The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy `
` of our sires." `
` `
` This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a `
` vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle. `
` `
` An _Antithesis_ (from the Greek _anti_, against, and _tithenai_, to set) `
` is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such `
` a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast. `
` `
` "Ring out the old, ring in the new, `
` Ring out the false, ring in the true." `
` `
` "Let us be _friends_ in peace, but _enemies_ in war." `
` `
` Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--"It can `
` engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out, `
` without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer; and lift up a ship of `
` war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors; `
` cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of `
` winds and waves." `
` `
` _Climax_ (from the Greek, _klimax_, a ladder), is an arrangement of `
` thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more `
` impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the `
` preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honor, he risked fame, he `
` risked all that men hold dear,--yea, he risked life itself, and for `
` what?--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he `
` was his better self." `
` `
` _Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write), `
`