Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
_Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write), `
` originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify `
` any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in `
` prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as, `
` "Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." `
` "He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could `
` not spare the money." `
` `
` _Interrogation_ (from the Latin _interrogatio_, a question), is a figure `
` of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does `
` God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?" `
` "What can a man do under the circumstances?" `
` `
` _Irony_ (from the Greek _eironcia_, dissimulation) is a form of expression `
` in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in `
` view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold `
` was an _honorable_ man." "A Judas Iscariot never _betrays_ a friend." "You `
` can always _depend_ upon the word of a liar." `
` `
` Irony is cousin germain to _ridicule_, _derision_, _mockery_, _satire_ `
` and _sarcasm_. _Ridicule_ implies laughter mingled with contempt; `
` _derision_ is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; _mockery_ is `
` insulting derision; _satire_ is witty mockery; _sarcasm_ is bitter satire `
` and _irony_ is disguised satire. `
` `
` There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language `
` and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from `
` their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The `
` golden rule for all is to _keep them in harmony with the character and `
` purpose of speech and composition_. `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER V `
` `
` PUNCTUATION `
` `
` Principal Points--Illustrations--Capital Letters. `
` `
` `
` Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation, `
` but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap `
` of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into _minutiae_, `
` that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition. `
` The manner of language, of style and of expression has considerably `
` changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden `
` meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or `
` long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is `
` toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been `
` greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a `
` matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules. `
` Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their `
` principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed. `
` `
` The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and `
` the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses `
` made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a `
` passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless, `
` several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force `
` of expression. `
` `
` The principal marks of punctuation are: `
` `
` 1. The Comma [,] `
` `
` 2. The Semicolon [;] `
` `
` 3. The Colon [:] `
` `
` 4. The Period [.] `
` `
` 5. The Interrogation [?] `
` `
` 6. The Exclamation [!] `
` `
` 7. The Dash [--] `
` `
` 8. The Parenthesis [()] `
` `
` 9. The Quotation [" "] `
` `
` There are several other points or marks to indicate various relations, `
` but properly speaking such come under the heading of Printer's Marks, `
` some of which are treated elsewhere. `
` `
` Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical points, and `
` the remaining five, the rhetorical points. `
` `
` `
` The _Comma_: The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation `
` which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever `
` possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence. `
` `
` (1) A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:-- `
` "Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave, `
` daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs, `
` commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black `
` and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through `
` the same gate." `
` `
` (2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who `
` said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'" `
` `
` (3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma `
` is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I `
` love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a `
` sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian." `
` `
` (4) An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The `
` old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk." `
` `
` (5) Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President, `
` was assassinated." `
` `
` (6) Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book, `
` which is the simplest, is often the most profound." `
` `
` (7) In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: `
` "Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives `
` the engines of our mills and factories." `
` `
` (8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great `
` statesman; Grant, a great soldier." `
` `
` (9) The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good `
` man." `
` `
` (10) In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures: `
` "Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars." `
` `
` `
` The _Semicolon_ marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is `
` generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is `
` much used in contrasts: `
` `
` (1) "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man." `
` `
` (2) The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in `
` which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that `
` of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her `
` statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy." `
` `
` (4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce `
` particulars or specifications following after, such as, _namely, as, `
` e.g., vid., i.e., etc._: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness, `
` lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a `
` portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of `
` cities should always commence with a capital letter; _e.g._, New York, `
` Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." `
` "No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish." `
` `
` `
` The _Colon_ except in conventional uses is practically obsolete. `
` `
` (1) It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long `
` quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:" `
` `
` (2) It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject `
` under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:" `
` `
` (3) A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a `
` colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:" `
` `
` (4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or `
` subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction `
` _or_ is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound." `
` `
` (5) It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My `
` dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very `
` often follows the colon. `
` `
` (6) It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things `
` already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were: `
` firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, `
` thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside." `
` `
` `
` The _Period_ is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark `
` the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor `
` exclamatory. `
` `
` (1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly." `
` "Plants grow." "Man is mortal." `
` `
` (2) In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C. `
` Alexander, D.D., L.L.D. `
` `
` (3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the `
` book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: _American `
` Trails_. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company. `
` `
` `
` The _Mark of Interrogation_ is used to ask or suggest a question. `
` `
` (1) Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected, `
` should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of `
` Napoleon?" `
` `
` (2) When several questions have a common dependence they should be `
` followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where `
`
` originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify `
` any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in `
` prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as, `
` "Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." `
` "He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could `
` not spare the money." `
` `
` _Interrogation_ (from the Latin _interrogatio_, a question), is a figure `
` of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does `
` God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?" `
` "What can a man do under the circumstances?" `
` `
` _Irony_ (from the Greek _eironcia_, dissimulation) is a form of expression `
` in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in `
` view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold `
` was an _honorable_ man." "A Judas Iscariot never _betrays_ a friend." "You `
` can always _depend_ upon the word of a liar." `
` `
` Irony is cousin germain to _ridicule_, _derision_, _mockery_, _satire_ `
` and _sarcasm_. _Ridicule_ implies laughter mingled with contempt; `
` _derision_ is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; _mockery_ is `
` insulting derision; _satire_ is witty mockery; _sarcasm_ is bitter satire `
` and _irony_ is disguised satire. `
` `
` There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language `
` and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from `
` their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The `
` golden rule for all is to _keep them in harmony with the character and `
` purpose of speech and composition_. `
` `
` `
` `
` `
` CHAPTER V `
` `
` PUNCTUATION `
` `
` Principal Points--Illustrations--Capital Letters. `
` `
` `
` Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation, `
` but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap `
` of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into _minutiae_, `
` that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition. `
` The manner of language, of style and of expression has considerably `
` changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden `
` meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or `
` long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is `
` toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been `
` greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a `
` matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules. `
` Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their `
` principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed. `
` `
` The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and `
` the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses `
` made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a `
` passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless, `
` several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force `
` of expression. `
` `
` The principal marks of punctuation are: `
` `
` 1. The Comma [,] `
` `
` 2. The Semicolon [;] `
` `
` 3. The Colon [:] `
` `
` 4. The Period [.] `
` `
` 5. The Interrogation [?] `
` `
` 6. The Exclamation [!] `
` `
` 7. The Dash [--] `
` `
` 8. The Parenthesis [()] `
` `
` 9. The Quotation [" "] `
` `
` There are several other points or marks to indicate various relations, `
` but properly speaking such come under the heading of Printer's Marks, `
` some of which are treated elsewhere. `
` `
` Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical points, and `
` the remaining five, the rhetorical points. `
` `
` `
` The _Comma_: The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation `
` which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever `
` possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence. `
` `
` (1) A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:-- `
` "Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave, `
` daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs, `
` commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black `
` and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through `
` the same gate." `
` `
` (2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who `
` said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'" `
` `
` (3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma `
` is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I `
` love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a `
` sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian." `
` `
` (4) An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The `
` old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk." `
` `
` (5) Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President, `
` was assassinated." `
` `
` (6) Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book, `
` which is the simplest, is often the most profound." `
` `
` (7) In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: `
` "Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives `
` the engines of our mills and factories." `
` `
` (8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great `
` statesman; Grant, a great soldier." `
` `
` (9) The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good `
` man." `
` `
` (10) In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures: `
` "Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars." `
` `
` `
` The _Semicolon_ marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is `
` generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is `
` much used in contrasts: `
` `
` (1) "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man." `
` `
` (2) The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in `
` which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that `
` of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her `
` statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy." `
` `
` (4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce `
` particulars or specifications following after, such as, _namely, as, `
` e.g., vid., i.e., etc._: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness, `
` lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a `
` portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of `
` cities should always commence with a capital letter; _e.g._, New York, `
` Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." `
` "No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish." `
` `
` `
` The _Colon_ except in conventional uses is practically obsolete. `
` `
` (1) It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long `
` quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:" `
` `
` (2) It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject `
` under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:" `
` `
` (3) A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a `
` colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:" `
` `
` (4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or `
` subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction `
` _or_ is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound." `
` `
` (5) It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My `
` dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very `
` often follows the colon. `
` `
` (6) It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things `
` already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were: `
` firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, `
` thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside." `
` `
` `
` The _Period_ is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark `
` the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor `
` exclamatory. `
` `
` (1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly." `
` "Plants grow." "Man is mortal." `
` `
` (2) In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C. `
` Alexander, D.D., L.L.D. `
` `
` (3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the `
` book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: _American `
` Trails_. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company. `
` `
` `
` The _Mark of Interrogation_ is used to ask or suggest a question. `
` `
` (1) Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected, `
` should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of `
` Napoleon?" `
` `
` (2) When several questions have a common dependence they should be `
` followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where `
`