Reading Help How to speak and write correctly Ch.I-VI
followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where `
` now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the `
` winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?" `
` `
` (3) The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?) `
` Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland." `
` `
` `
` The _Exclamation_ point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. `
` Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind. `
` `
` (1) It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as `
` interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!" `
` `
` (2) Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, `
` Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" `
` `
` (3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be `
` used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!" `
` `
` `
` The _Dash_ is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break `
` from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is `
` the most misused. `
` `
` (1) It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or `
` sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,--how we cherish them." "He was a `
` fine fellow--in his own opinion." `
` `
` (2) When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a dash `
` is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest of all `
` poets--Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the `
` continents of all thought." `
` `
` (3) The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He `
` is an excellent man but--" `
` `
` (4) It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the `
` natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels `
` of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure--a button." `
` `
` (5) It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J--n J--s" `
` for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew `
` VII:5, 6, 7, and 8. `
` `
` (6) When an ellipsis of the words, _namely, that is, to wit_, etc., takes `
` place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches-- `
` arithmetic, algebra, and geometry." `
` `
` (7) A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is `
` undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r----l (rascal). `
` This is especially the case in profane words. `
` `
` (8) Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash: `
` "All the world's a stage."--_Shakespeare_. `
` `
` (9) When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should `
` be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.--Do you love study? `
` I do." `
` `
` `
` _Marks of Parenthesis_ are used to separate expressions inserted in the `
` body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no `
` essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They `
` should be used as little as possible for they show that something is `
` being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it. `
` `
` (1) When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break `
` should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones `
` is one), even when he speaks the truth." `
` `
` (2) In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote `
` interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses `
` must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), we must show `
` the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our `
` dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will `
` not be our spokesman, we must select another. (A voice,--Get Robinson)." `
` `
` When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is `
` required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When `
` inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter `
` relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each `
` parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop `
` should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing `
` parenthesis. `
` `
` `
` The _Quotation marks_ are used to show that the words enclosed by them `
` are borrowed. `
` `
` (1) A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks: `
` Abraham Lincoln said,--"I shall make this land too hot for the feet of `
` slaves." `
` `
` (2) When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation `
` has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe 'honesty `
` is the best policy.'" `
` `
` (3) When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks `
` should precede each paragraph. `
` `
` (4) Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are `
` quoted. `
` `
` (5) Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it. `
` `
` `
` The _Apostrophe_ should come under the comma rather than under the `
` quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and signifies a turning `
` away from. The letter elided or turned away is generally an _e_. In poetry `
` and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as `
` "I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. `
` Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several `
` letters. In such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters `
` as "cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of `
` the century in dates, where the century is understood or to save the `
` repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of '76"; "I served in the `
` army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of `
` the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular `
` number whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with `
` any other letter than _s_, form the possessive by the addition of the `
` apostrophe and the letter _s_. The only exceptions to this rule are, that, `
` by poetical license the additional _s_ may be elided in poetry for sake of `
` the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For `
` conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away with the `
` _s_ and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns `
` ending in _s_ form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as `
` boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the `
` apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs. `
` `
` `
` CAPITAL LETTERS `
` `
` _Capital letters_ are used to give emphasis to or call attention to `
` certain words to distinguish them from the context. In manuscripts they `
` may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn `
` underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three lines for CAPITALS. `
` `
` Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it `
` degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper `
` places as given in the table below. `
` `
` (1) The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing `
` of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear `
` friend." `
` `
` (2) Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey said,-- `
` 'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'" `
` `
` (3) Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you; `
` 'How old are you?'" `
` `
` (4) Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man `
` with soul so dead?" `
` `
` (5) Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: (1) `
` That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That he `
` saw his assailant flee." `
` `
` (6) The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals; as, `
` CHAPTER VIII--RULES FOR USE OF CAPITALS. `
` `
` (7) In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs `
` should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the Poets." `
` `
` (8) In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II III V `
` X L C D M--1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000. `
` `
` (9) Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, Mark `
` Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas." `
` `
` Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are common, `
` not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an `
` adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper `
` names, and therefore require a capital; as, "Mississippi River, North `
` Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like manner the cardinal points north, `
` south, east and west, when they are used to distinguish regions of a `
` country are capitals; as, "The North fought against the South." `
` `
` When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part which is not `
` a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but with a small `
` letter if it follows, the hyphen; as "Post-homeric," "Sunday-school." `
` `
` (10) Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, "American, `
` Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize." `
` `
` In this connection the names of political parties, religious sects and `
` schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, Democrat, Whig, `
` Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free Thinkers." `
` `
` (11) The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a `
` capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman." `
` `
` (12) The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for `
` capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning `
` conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan College," etc. `
` `
` (13) When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, `
` aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and printed with `
` capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother John, Sister Jane, `
` Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to denote the early Christian `
`
` now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the `
` winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?" `
` `
` (3) The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?) `
` Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland." `
` `
` `
` The _Exclamation_ point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. `
` Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind. `
` `
` (1) It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as `
` interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!" `
` `
` (2) Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, `
` Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" `
` `
` (3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be `
` used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!" `
` `
` `
` The _Dash_ is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break `
` from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is `
` the most misused. `
` `
` (1) It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or `
` sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,--how we cherish them." "He was a `
` fine fellow--in his own opinion." `
` `
` (2) When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a dash `
` is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest of all `
` poets--Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the `
` continents of all thought." `
` `
` (3) The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He `
` is an excellent man but--" `
` `
` (4) It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the `
` natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels `
` of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure--a button." `
` `
` (5) It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J--n J--s" `
` for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew `
` VII:5, 6, 7, and 8. `
` `
` (6) When an ellipsis of the words, _namely, that is, to wit_, etc., takes `
` place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches-- `
` arithmetic, algebra, and geometry." `
` `
` (7) A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is `
` undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r----l (rascal). `
` This is especially the case in profane words. `
` `
` (8) Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash: `
` "All the world's a stage."--_Shakespeare_. `
` `
` (9) When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should `
` be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir.--Do you love study? `
` I do." `
` `
` `
` _Marks of Parenthesis_ are used to separate expressions inserted in the `
` body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no `
` essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They `
` should be used as little as possible for they show that something is `
` being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it. `
` `
` (1) When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break `
` should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar (and Jones `
` is one), even when he speaks the truth." `
` `
` (2) In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote `
` interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses `
` must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear), we must show `
` the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our `
` dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will `
` not be our spokesman, we must select another. (A voice,--Get Robinson)." `
` `
` When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is `
` required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When `
` inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter `
` relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each `
` parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop `
` should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing `
` parenthesis. `
` `
` `
` The _Quotation marks_ are used to show that the words enclosed by them `
` are borrowed. `
` `
` (1) A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks: `
` Abraham Lincoln said,--"I shall make this land too hot for the feet of `
` slaves." `
` `
` (2) When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation `
` has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to believe 'honesty `
` is the best policy.'" `
` `
` (3) When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks `
` should precede each paragraph. `
` `
` (4) Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are `
` quoted. `
` `
` (5) Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion for it. `
` `
` `
` The _Apostrophe_ should come under the comma rather than under the `
` quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and signifies a turning `
` away from. The letter elided or turned away is generally an _e_. In poetry `
` and familiar dialogue the apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as `
` "I've for I have"; "Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. `
` Sometimes it is necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several `
` letters. In such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters `
` as "cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the elision of `
` the century in dates, where the century is understood or to save the `
` repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of '76"; "I served in the `
` army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98 and '99." The principal use of `
` the apostrophe is to denote the possessive case. All nouns in the singular `
` number whether proper names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with `
` any other letter than _s_, form the possessive by the addition of the `
` apostrophe and the letter _s_. The only exceptions to this rule are, that, `
` by poetical license the additional _s_ may be elided in poetry for sake of `
` the metre, and in the scriptural phrases "For goodness' sake." "For `
` conscience' sake," "For Jesus' sake," etc. Custom has done away with the `
` _s_ and these phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns `
` ending in _s_ form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only as `
` boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns never take the `
` apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs. `
` `
` `
` CAPITAL LETTERS `
` `
` _Capital letters_ are used to give emphasis to or call attention to `
` certain words to distinguish them from the context. In manuscripts they `
` may be written small or large and are indicated by lines drawn `
` underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three lines for CAPITALS. `
` `
` Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it `
` degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper `
` places as given in the table below. `
` `
` (1) The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in writing `
` of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies." "My dear `
` friend." `
` `
` (2) Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey said,-- `
` 'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'" `
` `
` (3) Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you; `
` 'How old are you?'" `
` `
` (4) Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a man `
` with soul so dead?" `
` `
` (5) Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts: (1) `
` That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3) That he `
` saw his assailant flee." `
` `
` (6) The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in capitals; as, `
` CHAPTER VIII--RULES FOR USE OF CAPITALS. `
` `
` (7) In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs `
` should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the Poets." `
` `
` (8) In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II III V `
` X L C D M--1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000. `
` `
` (9) Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar, Mark `
` Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas." `
` `
` Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally are common, `
` not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such are used with an `
` adjective or adjunct to specify a particular object they become proper `
` names, and therefore require a capital; as, "Mississippi River, North `
` Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In like manner the cardinal points north, `
` south, east and west, when they are used to distinguish regions of a `
` country are capitals; as, "The North fought against the South." `
` `
` When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part which is not `
` a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes, but with a small `
` letter if it follows, the hyphen; as "Post-homeric," "Sunday-school." `
` `
` (10) Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as, "American, `
` Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize." `
` `
` In this connection the names of political parties, religious sects and `
` schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican, Democrat, Whig, `
` Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free Thinkers." `
` `
` (11) The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with a `
` capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman." `
` `
` (12) The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for `
` capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning `
` conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan College," etc. `
` `
` (13) When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, `
` aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and printed with `
` capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother John, Sister Jane, `
` Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to denote the early Christian `
`